Mastering College Grades: Insights from NBER

Since the 1990s, college grades in the United States have been rising. This trend, known as grade inflation, began to accelerate during that decade and has persisted ever since. Researchers at the National Bureau of Economic Research have found that the increase in GPAs is responsible for a substantial part of the rise in graduation rates over the same period. They analyzed large-scale academic data sets and discovered that average grades have climbed even after accounting for changes in student demographics or institutional resources.

This systemic increase in grades is not fully explained by shifts in the types of students attending college, nor by increased funding or improved facilities. Instead, grading standards themselves have become more lenient, and more students are receiving higher marks for the same level of work. The effect is most pronounced in private institutions and selective public universities, where the average GPA has risen more quickly than at less selective colleges.

Graduation rates have also increased along with average GPAs. These higher GPAs do not necessarily indicate an increase in actual student learning or proficiency, but they do enable more students to earn diplomas.

Despite the overall upward trend in grades and graduations, not all groups of students have benefited equally. Researchers have observed that underrepresented minority students—often abbreviated as URM students—continue to receive lower grades and have higher attrition rates, especially in STEM disciplines. This pattern has persisted from the 2000s to the present. Studies published on platforms like arxiv.org document that achievement gaps have not closed, even as overall GPAs climb.

The disparity in STEM fields is particularly acute. STEM courses tend to use more objective, exam-based assessments, which some researchers argue leads to less grade inflation than in the humanities or social sciences. Yet the persistence of lower grades and higher dropout rates for underrepresented students signals that the issue cannot be fully explained by the grading scale alone. Systemic inequities, including disparities in preparation, support, and classroom environment, remain significant barriers.

In parallel with these broad trends, educational researchers have explored which strategies most reliably predict academic success at the individual level. These studies have found that the students who consistently earn the top grades are rarely just the most naturally intelligent or those who put in the longest hours. The most successful students are “the most systematic.” They follow structured routines, apply deliberate strategies, and use specific tools to manage their workload and maximize retention.

One of the most straightforward and evidence-backed strategies involves where you sit in the classroom. Observational studies summarized by Utah Valley University’s Academic Coaching program reveal that sitting at the front of the class is associated with higher grades. Students in the front rows are more likely to make eye contact with the instructor, participate in discussions, and avoid distractions. Their physical proximity to the focus of the lecture helps them maintain engagement, absorb more information, and signal attentiveness to the professor.

Seating location also changes how students interact with material. Those at the front feel more scrutinized and more involved, which can nudge them into more active participation. Over time, this increased engagement translates to better retention of information and, ultimately, higher performance on exams and assignments.

Another core habit of high-performing students is effective note-taking. Academic success is not just about attending lectures but about how you process what you hear. The Princeton Review has documented that students who use systematic note-taking strategies—for example, creating clear outlines, using abbreviations, and reviewing notes soon after class—tend to outperform their peers. Organizing notes by topic, using symbols or shorthand, and rewriting or annotating notes shortly after a lecture are all associated with improved recall and comprehension. The act of taking notes forces students to summarize and rephrase concepts in their own words, immediately deepening their understanding. Review and revision soon after class prevents the natural decay of short-term memory and starts the process of moving new information toward long-term retention.

Organizational skills extend beyond note-taking. Systematic students use planners, calendars, and active to-do lists to break large assignments into smaller, manageable tasks. They create regular study schedules, balancing course requirements with outside commitments, and they stick to these routines even when motivation wanes. This predictability reduces procrastination and prevents the accumulation of last-minute stress. Consistency enables them to anticipate busy weeks and adjust their workload proactively.

In STEM fields, where homework and problem sets often make up a significant portion of the grade, students who spread work over several days outperform those who cram in a single session. This is because repeated exposure to concepts over multiple study sessions strengthens neural connections—an effect known as distributed practice. Cramming, by contrast, produces rapid but shallow learning that quickly fades after the exam.

Studies summarized in the arxiv.org paper show that URM students often face less supportive environments and fewer mentorship opportunities. They may encounter subtle biases, lower expectations, and a lack of role models, all of which reduce their sense of belonging and increase the likelihood of withdrawing from challenging majors.

One mechanism that can help close these gaps is the creation of more inclusive and supportive classroom climates. Instructors can foster this by acknowledging a range of voices in class discussions, forming diverse study groups, and providing explicit encouragement and feedback. Peer-led team learning, where students work collaboratively to solve difficult problems, has been shown to increase retention and achievement for students from underrepresented backgrounds.

Online courses have become increasingly important resources, especially in STEM subjects. These platforms offer video lectures, self-paced problem sets, and interactive quizzes that allow students to review difficult concepts as many times as needed. For students who feel lost or unsupported in large lecture halls, online materials can provide targeted remediation and practice opportunities. Many universities now supplement face-to-face instruction with comprehensive online modules, helping students address learning gaps early in the semester.

Active recall is one of the most powerful study techniques documented by cognitive psychologists. Rather than re-reading notes or highlighting textbooks, top students test themselves repeatedly on core material. This process involves trying to retrieve information from memory, which strengthens retention much more effectively than passive review. Flashcards, practice problems, and self-generated quiz questions are all forms of active recall. The key is to force the brain to search for answers, not just recognize them.

Combining active recall with spaced repetition—spreading study sessions over days or weeks—leads to especially durable learning. Each time a concept is recalled, it is re-encoded with greater strength. Over time, this method produces a robust memory trace that resists forgetting, even under the stress of high-stakes exams.

The rise of online STEM courses has enabled more students to access expert instruction on demand. These courses typically include structured problem sets, automated feedback, and forums for peer discussion. Students who engage with these resources systematically—completing every problem set, reviewing solutions, and participating in discussion boards—show greater improvement in course grades than those who use the materials only sporadically.

Not all online courses are equally effective, however. The best platforms integrate assessment with learning, providing immediate feedback and hints when a student makes an error. This allows for targeted remediation and prevents the reinforcement of misconceptions. Courses that include regular low-stakes quizzes encourage the repeated retrieval of information, driving home key concepts and formulas.

Time management is a decisive factor in academic performance, particularly in STEM disciplines where assignments and labs can be time-consuming. Top students block out regular study hours on their calendars, treating them as non-negotiable appointments. They break large tasks—such as semester-long projects or cumulative review sessions—into smaller, weekly goals. This incremental approach makes daunting workloads manageable and helps prevent burnout.

Physical and mental health have measurable impacts on college performance. Students who maintain regular sleep schedules, exercise routines, and nutrition habits are less likely to experience cognitive lapses or chronic fatigue. Inadequate sleep impairs memory formation and slows reaction times, both of which are critical for solving complex problems under exam conditions.

The design of classroom environments continues to affect student outcomes. Studies on seating patterns consistently find that students sitting at the front of the lecture hall earn higher grades than those sitting at the back. The increased interaction between front-row students and instructors leads to greater engagement, more frequent participation, and improved understanding of course material.

Instructors can influence these dynamics by encouraging all students to move closer to the front or by rotating seating assignments. Some colleges have even redesigned classrooms to minimize the distance between the instructor and students, fostering more active participation and reducing the impact of seating location.

Casey LaMarca, an instructor at Southern New Hampshire University, has observed that earning even a single good grade can catalyze a student’s confidence. According to LaMarca, low-confidence students who receive an A on an assignment often experience a “completely changed perspective” on their own abilities. This shift in self-perception can increase motivation and resilience, making them more likely to persist through future challenges.

The boost in confidence from academic success is not just psychological. It changes behavior, encouraging students to set more ambitious goals, seek out help when needed, and invest greater effort into their studies. Over time, these behaviors compound, producing a virtuous cycle of achievement.

Systematic study routines also help reduce anxiety around exams and deadlines. Students who review material regularly, test themselves, and keep up with assignments are less likely to feel overwhelmed as exams approach. This reduction in stress allows them to perform closer to their true potential, rather than being hampered by panic or last-minute cramming.

Evidence suggests that students from all backgrounds benefit from explicit instruction in study skills. Many colleges now offer workshops or online modules on topics like note-taking, time management, and test preparation. These resources are especially valuable for first-generation college students, who may not have access to informal networks of academic guidance.

Peer support is another critical factor. Study groups, tutoring centers, and collaborative assignments provide opportunities for students to explain concepts to each other, fill in gaps in understanding, and develop a sense of community. These social supports are particularly important for students who may feel isolated in large or competitive STEM programs.

The use of digital tools has expanded rapidly over the past two decades. Students now rely on a wide range of apps and platforms for organizing assignments, setting reminders, and tracking progress. Planners like Google Calendar or Notion enable students to visualize their workload and allocate time more effectively. Habit-tracking apps encourage consistency and accountability.

Some students use specialized note-taking software that allows for easy search, tagging, and cross-referencing of content. This digital organization makes it easier to locate information quickly when studying for exams or completing projects. Well-organized digital notes can function as a personalized textbook, tailored to the specific demands of each course.

In collaborative STEM courses, cloud-based platforms facilitate group work. Tools like shared documents and virtual whiteboards enable students to brainstorm, draft, and edit assignments in real time, regardless of physical location. This flexibility has become even more significant as courses move partially or fully online.

Online courses often supplement traditional textbooks with interactive simulations and virtual labs. These allow students to visualize abstract concepts, manipulate variables, and see the immediate consequences of changes in parameters. For example, physics students might use simulations to experiment with forces and motion, while chemistry students can build molecules or run virtual reactions. These hands-on experiences deepen conceptual understanding and improve retention.

Systemic factors also play a role in shaping student outcomes. Colleges that invest in smaller class sizes, accessible faculty, and well-resourced academic support centers see higher overall grades and graduation rates. These resources provide students with more opportunities for feedback, clarification, and individualized help.

Access to research opportunities is another predictor of high academic achievement in STEM fields. Students who work in faculty labs or participate in undergraduate research projects gain practical experience, develop technical skills, and build relationships with mentors. These experiences not only improve grades but also increase the likelihood of pursuing graduate study or scientific careers.

Despite the proliferation of digital resources and expanded access to online learning, achievement gaps for underrepresented minority students in STEM remain stubbornly persistent. Researchers attribute this to a combination of structural barriers, including differential access to advanced coursework in high school, financial stress, and subtle forms of bias in college classrooms. Addressing these gaps requires institutional commitment to equity, mentorship programs, and targeted academic support.

Assessment practices have also evolved alongside grade inflation. Some instructors have adopted more frequent, low-stakes quizzes to assess understanding throughout the semester, rather than relying solely on high-pressure midterms or finals. This approach not only reduces test anxiety but also promotes spaced study and active recall, both of which improve long-term retention.

In some STEM courses, instructors have implemented group-based exams or collaborative problem-solving sessions. These methods encourage students to discuss concepts, explain their reasoning, and learn from peers. Collaborative assessments can also reduce performance gaps by leveraging the strengths of diverse group members.

Technology has enabled instructors to use data analytics to identify students at risk of falling behind. Learning management systems track assignment submissions, quiz scores, and participation, allowing faculty or advisors to intervene early when students show signs of disengagement. Proactive outreach and targeted support increase retention and improve grades.

The widespread availability of online courses has democratized access to high-quality STEM instruction. Students at colleges with limited course offerings can enroll in online classes to supplement or replace traditional lectures. This flexibility is especially valuable for non-traditional students, those balancing work and family responsibilities, or students who need to repeat a course to improve their grade.

Faculty development programs train instructors to use evidence-based teaching practices, such as active learning, formative assessment, and inclusive pedagogy. These approaches have been shown to increase engagement and achievement for all students, but especially for those from underrepresented backgrounds.

Course design matters. Classes that specify clear learning objectives, provide detailed grading rubrics, and offer regular feedback produce better outcomes than those with vague or shifting expectations. Students who understand how their performance will be evaluated are better able to target their efforts and improve over time.

Access to campus resources—such as writing centers, math labs, and supplemental instruction sessions—predicts higher grades and reduced attrition, especially in challenging STEM courses. These supports provide students with expert help outside of class and create a safety net for those struggling to keep up.

The proliferation of massive open online courses, or MOOCs, has expanded the range of study materials available to college students. These courses often feature lectures by leading experts, practice problems, and automatic grading. Students who take advantage of these resources to supplement their coursework often gain a deeper understanding of difficult topics and improve their grades.

Adaptive learning platforms use algorithms to customize practice questions and feedback to each student’s current level of mastery. These systems can identify areas of weakness, adjust the difficulty of problems, and provide targeted hints. Students who use adaptive platforms demonstrate greater gains in performance than those who rely solely on static textbooks or lecture notes.

Laboratory and hands-on experiences remain a cornerstone of STEM education. Students who actively participate in labs, rather than passively observing, retain more information and develop stronger practical skills. Well-designed lab courses include pre-lab assignments, active experimentation, and post-lab reflection, reinforcing both conceptual understanding and scientific reasoning.

Student-faculty interaction is another factor linked to higher academic achievement. Regular office hours, email exchanges, and mentoring relationships allow students to clarify doubts, seek advice, and gain insights into the discipline. These interactions are especially impactful for students who may lack academic role models outside of college.

Scholarship and grant opportunities can reduce financial stress and allow students to devote more time to their studies. Financial security is linked to higher grades and improved retention, particularly for students from disadvantaged backgrounds.

The physical environment in which students study influences their productivity and learning. Quiet, distraction-free spaces, comfortable lighting, and ergonomic seating all contribute to sustained focus and improved information retention. Many colleges provide designated study areas, but students who take the initiative to find or create ideal workspaces see measurable improvements in performance.

In high-enrollment STEM courses, instructors sometimes use clicker questions or live polls to increase participation during lectures. These real-time assessments provide immediate feedback to both students and instructors and encourage active engagement with the material. Studies show that regular participation in these interactive activities is associated with higher exam scores.

The selection of elective courses and degree requirements also affects student grades. Some departments offer introductory courses with built-in academic supports—such as peer mentors, tutoring, and review sessions—to help students succeed. Choosing courses with these supports can improve performance and persistence.

Different instructors and departments use varying grading curves or policies. Some use strict point-based grading, while others adjust scores based on class averages. Understanding how your grades will be calculated allows you to strategize more effectively, focusing effort where it will have the greatest impact.

Students who regularly attend review sessions, whether in person or online, perform better on cumulative exams. These sessions often highlight key concepts, common pitfalls, and likely exam questions, helping students focus their preparation and avoid surprise topics.

Academic advising is a resource that predicts improved grades and graduation rates. Advisors help students select appropriate courses, balance workloads, and navigate institutional requirements. Regular meetings with advisors can prevent course overload, missed prerequisites, and late graduation.

Research on grade inflation finds that increases in GPA have contributed significantly to higher graduation rates since the 1990s. This trend is especially pronounced in private and selective public colleges and is not fully explained by changes in student demographics or institutional resources.

Despite rising grades, persistent achievement gaps remain for underrepresented minority students in STEM fields. Systemic inequities, less supportive environments, and fewer mentorship opportunities continue to affect retention and performance.

Sitting at the front of the class is consistently associated with higher academic achievement. The mechanism is increased engagement and reduced distraction, leading to better comprehension and exam performance.

Effective note-taking—using clear organization, abbreviations, and immediate review—leads to stronger retention and higher grades. The act of summarizing and rewriting information deepens understanding and facilitates recall during exams.

Casey LaMarca, an instructor at Southern New Hampshire University, has observed that earning a single high grade can transform a student’s confidence and sense of what is possible. This psychological shift has downstream effects on motivation, persistence, and academic outcomes.

Active recall is a highly effective study technique for STEM students. Students who test themselves, rather than passively rereading or highlighting, retain information more effectively and perform better on assessments.

Online STEM courses and digital resources provide flexible, on-demand instruction, targeted practice, and immediate feedback. Students who engage with these resources systematically see larger gains in understanding and grades.