Mastering Study Skills with Marvin Cohn's Insights

The term “study skills” refers to a set of techniques used to organize, absorb, retain, and recall information for learning and exam performance. Manuals devoted to these techniques have been published since the 1940s. In the 1950s and 1960s, college instructors in psychology and education wrote such manuals based on research and their own experience with students. Marvin Cohn, who headed a university reading clinic, published “Helping Your Teen-Age Student” in 1978 based on his work tutoring teenagers and young adults. By 1986, Gary Gruber had authored 22 books about taking standardized tests, including “Dr. Gary Gruber's Essential Guide to Test Taking for Kids” in two volumes, one for upper elementary grades and another for middle school. These works show how the concept of study skills became formalized over the decades and expanded into subfields such as test preparation and reading clinics.

Memorization is one of the most basic approaches to learning information. It involves a deliberate mental process for storing data in memory, usually through repetition, or rote learning. Rote learning consists of repeatedly reading notes or a textbook and rewriting them. The mechanism of rote learning is based on reinforcement: as information is repeated, neural pathways associated with that information are strengthened. The weakness of rote learning is its passivity; it does not require the learner to analyze, question, or connect new knowledge to what they already know. John Dewey and other educators have argued that students need critical thinking—questioning and weighing evidence—rather than passive memorization, to develop deeper understanding.

The REAP method is a reading and listening technique designed to improve understanding of a text and bridge ideas between the student and the author. REAP stands for Read, Encode, Annotate, and Ponder. In the Read phase, the student reads a section to identify its main idea. During Encode, the student paraphrases this idea in their own words, which transforms the information from the author’s perspective to the student’s perspective. In Annotate, the student adds notes that reflect critical understanding or relevant connections. In Ponder, the student reflects on what was read by thinking about it, discussing it with others, or reading related materials. The REAP method works by requiring students to reprocess content, make it concise and coherent, and actively elaborate on it, which aids deeper learning.

The PQRST method helps students focus on key information when studying from books or uncritically reviewing material. PQRST stands for Preview, Question, Read, Summary, and Test. In Preview, the student examines headings or syllabus points to get an overview. During Question, the student creates questions to be answered after a thorough examination of the topic. In Read, the student reads relevant material, focusing on answers to their questions. In Summary, the student condenses the topic into notes, diagrams, mnemonics, or recordings. In the Test phase, the student answers the questions they created, deliberately avoiding distracting or irrelevant questions. The PQRST method structures the study process so that information is prioritized according to how it will be used in assessments.

Peer communication has been linked to increased study habit effectiveness. One study on classes found that students enrolled in certain courses saw an average score increase of 73 percent after engaging in peer communication related to studying. This effect likely arises because discussing material with peers forces students to explain concepts, which deepens their understanding and creates opportunities for clarification.

Cues are another strategy for aiding memory. A cue is any word, phrase, or song that helps retrieve a memory intentionally encoded with that prompt. Self-created cues are more effective than those made by others, because personal associations are more memorable. When students craft their own cues, they tie information to their unique mental framework, making recall more likely.

Self-testing is an effective practice for exam preparation. Research by Roediger and Karpicke in 2006 involved eighth-grade students taking history exams. The students who tested themselves on material, instead of only reviewing or rereading it, had better and longer-lasting retention. This effect is known as the Testing Effect. The mechanism behind it is that retrieval practice strengthens memory by requiring the brain to access and reconstruct the information, rather than merely passively reviewing it.

Taking notes on a computer—electronic notetaking—can hinder impactful learning. Even when students use computers solely for notes and do not multitask, the act of typing tends to produce notes that are nearly verbatim transcripts of lectures. This leads to shallow processing, because students are less likely to paraphrase or summarize the material. In contrast, writing notes by hand encourages students to process information deeply by converting it into their own words, leading to better understanding and recall.

Speed reading, while trainable, leads to lower accuracy, comprehension, and understanding. The trade-off between speed and comprehension is due to the limits of human cognitive processing; as reading speed increases beyond a certain point, the brain cannot fully process and retain all the details, leading to weaker long-term retention and less nuanced understanding.

Flashcards serve as visual cues, typically with a question or prompt on one side and an answer on the other. Students often make their own flashcards or use index cards for detailed summaries. Because cards are discrete and portable, students can reorder them, pick selections for review, or shuffle them for self-testing. Software equivalents, such as digital flashcard programs, replicate these functions and allow for randomized or spaced repetition.

Summary methods condense large amounts of material into shorter notes. These notes often get condensed further into key facts. Organized summaries can take the form of outlines, where keywords, definitions, and relationships are shown in a tree structure. Spider diagrams and mind maps are visual tools that link concepts together, making them useful for planning essays or exam responses. Visual summaries preserve the logical structure of topics and use connecting lines to show relationships, which helps students understand and recall the organization of information.

Visual imagery techniques leverage the brain’s strong capacity for remembering images. The method of loci is a well-known memory technique that involves visualizing key information in familiar physical locations, such as rooms or routes. By associating concepts with vivid locations, students create a mental map that aids recall. Diagrams are also powerful, as making a diagram requires reorganizing learned information in a practical way, reinforcing understanding. Pictures or diagrams can be transferred to flashcards, which are especially effective as last-minute revision tools, because they allow for rapid review of visual summaries.

Mnemonics are systems for organizing and memorizing information. There are four main types. Narrative mnemonics use stories or event sequences. Sonic or textual mnemonics use rhythm, rhyme, or acronyms. Visual mnemonics employ diagrams, mind maps, or images. Topical mnemonics make information place-dependent, using familiar rooms, buildings, or landmarks as memory triggers. For example, the phrase “Never Eat Shredded Wheat” encodes the compass points North, East, South, and West in clockwise order, with the first letter of each word corresponding to a direction.

The Black-Red-Green method helps ensure that all aspects of an exam or essay question are addressed. The student underlines relevant parts of the question in three colors. Black denotes “blatant instructions”—things that must be done. Red signifies required input, such as definitions, cited authors, or theoretical references. Green marks subtle signals or hints about how to proceed or where to emphasize answers. By dissecting questions in this way, students can systematically address all components and avoid missing critical elements.

The PEE method—Point, Evidence, Explain—breaks down exam questions so students can maximize marks. In this method, the student states a point, provides supporting evidence, and then explains how the evidence connects to the point. Practicing the PEE method before exams helps students construct clear, logical responses.

Spacing, or distributed learning, involves spreading study sessions over time instead of cramming all material into a single long session. This technique improves retention and performance on tests. According to Jost’s Law from 1897, “If two associations are of equal strength but of different age, a new repetition has a greater value for the older one.” This means reviewing older material strengthens memories more than reviewing new material. Spacing helps the brain consolidate information between sessions, making it easier to recall later.

Spaced repetition isn’t just useful for memorization. It can also enhance classroom learning by helping students retain and recall new material. For example, students who study multiple times, with intervals between sessions, remember information longer than those who cram once. Research supports that distributing learning over several days outperforms a single session of the same total length.

Blocking and interleaving are two approaches to organizing study topics. Blocking involves studying one topic at a time, such as completing all exercises on skill A before moving to skill B. Interleaving mixes different topics or skills, such as alternating between A, B, and C in a sequence like ABC-ABC-ABC. Research has found that interleaving is superior to blocking for learning skills and mastering new subjects. The mechanism behind this advantage is that interleaving forces the brain to discriminate between concepts, improving flexible understanding and long-term retention.

Retrieval practice is one of the most efficient learning methods. This means deliberately trying to recall learned information or skills. Techniques include self-quizzing, using flashcards, practicing problem-solving, and active recall exercises. Retrieval practice strengthens memory traces by forcing the brain to reconstruct information, which increases the likelihood of recall during exams or real-world application.

Improvements to study effectiveness can come from changes unrelated to the material, such as time management, motivation, sleep, and diet. Time management systems, like the traffic lights method, help students prioritize material. In this method, students use colors: green for important and simple topics to study first, amber for important but time-consuming topics, and red for complex or lower-priority topics. This system reminds students to start with material that offers the greatest benefit before focusing on harder or less relevant content.

Adequate sleep is essential for effective studying, because it improves memory consolidation. Research suggests that students are generally more productive in the mornings, but information learned in the afternoon or evening is better retained. This is consistent with memory consolidation models, which propose that tasks requiring analysis and application are best suited for mornings, while learning new information and memorizing are better done in the evenings.

Emotional state affects memory recall. When students replicate the emotional state experienced during class while studying, they are more likely to recall the information. If a student is generally calm in class, studying while calm will yield better recall. If a student is upset but is usually calm during learning, it is better to wait until they feel calm again before studying, as the brain forms stronger associations under familiar emotional conditions.

The Pomodoro Method increases productivity by segmenting time into focused intervals. Invented in the 1980s, it divides work into 30-minute blocks, each containing a 25-minute study period and a 5-minute break. After four Pomodoros, a 15- to 30-minute break is taken. This technique helps limit interruptions and maintain sustained focus. A software engineering company found that employees using the Pomodoro Method experienced fewer workflow interruptions and increased satisfaction, suggesting that the technique can reduce wasted time and make study sessions more productive.

Journaling can improve academic performance by reducing stress and anxiety. In a study by Frattaroli and colleagues, students preparing for graduate entrance exams such as the GRE, LSAT, and MCAT wrote journal entries immediately before taking the tests. The entries often began with expressions of fear or concern, but as students wrote, they encouraged themselves and cultivated hope. Those who journaled before exams reported lower anxiety and achieved better results. The mechanism appears to be emotional regulation; writing about fears helps students process and reframe their emotions.

Changing the study environment can make studying more effective. By varying the location—such as studying in a bedroom, outdoors, and then in a coffee shop—students create multiple associations between the material and different environmental cues. This “context variation” gives the brain more retrieval pathways. Benedict Carey has reported that changing venue improved memory retrieval strength by 40 percent. Environmental factors can include not just location, but also sounds, smells, or even the type of food eaten during study sessions.

Background music can influence memory during studying. If a student studies with music playing and is able to play the same music during a test, they recall more information. Carey suggests that “background music weaves itself subconsciously into the fabric of stored memory.” This means that an environmental “distraction” like music creates more vivid memory traces, making the material more accessible during recall if the music is reproduced during the test.

Analogies are effective tools for improving memory encoding and recall. When students create analogies that have personal significance or sentimental value, they store and recall information more effectively. The Self-reference Effect, documented in a 1970 study by Bower and Winzez, shows that material linked to the self is remembered better. Analogies can include visual images, linking concepts to personal experiences, or diagrams showing relationships between complex elements. Familiar or vivid examples are more memorable, but analogies that are logically inconsistent or poorly described can mislead learners and create superficial understanding.

Concept mapping is a technique that links concepts visually, often with nodes and connecting lines. There is evidence supporting the efficacy of concept mapping as a learning tool, particularly for subjects requiring the integration of complex ideas. Concept maps allow students to see the hierarchical structure of information, making it easier to see relationships and recall them later.

Manuals on study skills have been published since the 1940s, reflecting a growing awareness of the need for systematic approaches to learning. In the 1950s and 1960s, authors like Preston Rah and Robert Kranyik produced guides such as “Teaching Study Habits and Skills” (1959) and “How to Teach Study Skills” (1963), aimed at helping teachers foster better study practices among students. The increasing emphasis on study skills in high schools and universities mirrors changes in educational philosophy and the rising demand for standardized test performance.

The method of loci, a visual memory technique, involves associating information with specific locations in a familiar environment, such as rooms in a house. This ancient technique was used by Greek and Roman orators. The mechanism behind its effectiveness lies in the brain’s spatial memory system, which is highly developed and can be harnessed for storing lists or sequences of facts.

Diagrams, according to research by Diezmann and English, are undervalued tools in education. They force students to reorganize learned information and represent it visually. By synthesizing and condensing complex material into graphical form, diagrams help students quickly recall interconnected information, particularly when the diagrams are student-generated.

Acronyms are a common mnemonic device. They condense lists of information into a sequence of initial letters that are easier to remember. For example, “PEMDAS” is used to remember the order of operations in mathematics: Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction. By encoding multiple concepts into a short, memorable word, acronyms reduce cognitive load and speed up recall during problem-solving.

Testing oneself on material, rather than only reviewing it, is more effective for long-term retention. Research by Roediger and Karpicke demonstrated that students who self-tested remembered more information over time than those who only reread material. The “Testing Effect” is driven by the effortful recall process, which strengthens memory networks and provides feedback about what has and hasn’t been learned.

Electronic notetaking, such as typing notes during lectures, often results in students recording information verbatim. A 2014 study by Mueller and Oppenheimer found that this practice leads to shallower cognitive processing and worse recall, compared to handwritten notes. Handwriting forces students to summarize and paraphrase, integrating new material into their own words and mental frameworks.

Speed reading advocates claim that reading speeds of 1,000 words per minute or more are possible, but empirical evidence shows that comprehension and retention suffer at high speeds. According to a 2017 review, while speed reading techniques can increase apparent reading rate, the brain’s ability to process and understand complex information does not scale linearly, resulting in loss of detail and lower accuracy.

Organized summaries typically use hierarchical outlines, with main ideas and supporting details arranged in a tree structure. This visual hierarchy helps students see the relationships between concepts, facilitating recall and application. Spider diagrams or mind maps use a central node with branches linking related subtopics, which helps students visualize the overall structure of a topic and how its parts connect.

Mnemonics often use stories or visualizations to encode information. For example, to remember the order of biological classification—Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species—students use the phrase “King Philip Came Over For Good Soup.” The technique works by embedding each term in a familiar or emotionally engaging narrative, making each step easier to recall.

The Black-Red-Green method, developed by the Royal Literary Fund, uses color coding to deconstruct exam questions. By marking blatant instructions (black), required references (red), and subtle hints (green), students ensure that their answers are comprehensive and well-structured. This approach reduces the likelihood of missing important points or misinterpreting exam prompts.

Spacing effect was first described experimentally in the late nineteenth century. Frank Dempster, in a 1989 review, found that spaced repetition consistently outperforms massed practice (cramming) for long-term retention across diverse learning tasks. Distributing study sessions over days or weeks allows time for memory consolidation, making the information more resistant to forgetting.

Interleaving, mixing different but related topics within a study session, has been found to enhance learning, especially in mathematics, science, and sports. Pan and others, writing for Scientific American, noted that interleaving forces students to retrieve and apply multiple problem-solving strategies, leading to more flexible and durable knowledge.

Retrieval practice has been tested in medical school settings. Augustin (2014) summarized that techniques such as self-quizzing and problem-solving, when repeated at intervals, result in higher test scores and more reliable knowledge compared with passive review. The act of retrieving information acts as a memory “workout,” strengthening neural connections.

Time management techniques, such as the ABC analysis and the traffic lights system, are used to assign priority to tasks. The ABC analysis divides tasks into three groups: A (most important), B (moderately important), and C (least important). The traffic lights system uses green for priority topics, amber for important but time-consuming material, and red for complex or less urgent topics. Both methods help students allocate their time efficiently.

Sleep plays a critical role in memory consolidation. Holz and colleagues (2012) found that the timing of learning sessions relative to sleep affects how information is stored in adolescent brains. Learning before nighttime sleep improved long-term memory consolidation for declarative (factual) content. This suggests that scheduling study sessions before sleep may enhance retention.

The Pomodoro Technique, developed in the 1980s, divides work into 25-minute intervals separated by short breaks. Ruensuk (2016) found that using this technique in software development teams reduced internal and external interruptions, leading to more sustained focus and higher productivity.

Journaling as a stress-reduction tool has measurable effects on test performance. Frattaroli, Thomas, and Lyubomirsky (2011) showed that expressive writing immediately before exams led to lower anxiety and better test results in graduate school entrance exams. The process involves confronting and reframing fears, which reduces mental distractions and improves focus.

Carey reports that changing study environment can improve retrieval strength by 40 percent. This finding suggests that variability in environmental cues—such as location, sounds, and smells—creates more robust memory traces, increasing the likelihood of recall in varied contexts.

Background music, when present during both study and testing, can serve as a retrieval cue. Carey describes how music becomes subconsciously woven into memory, and reproducing the same music during recall can trigger associated information. This effect may explain why students sometimes remember information better in the presence of familiar background stimuli.

Analogies are most effective when they are vivid, relevant to the learner, and logically sound. Malamed (2013) and Bower and Winzenz (1970) both report that analogies tied to the self are more easily remembered, a phenomenon called the Self-reference Effect. However, flawed or superficial analogies can lead to misconceptions, so clarity and relevance are key.

Concept mapping, as described by Boucquey (2015), can be applied to any subject to visually organize and relate information. By constructing concept maps, students externalize their internal mental models, which facilitates the recognition of gaps in understanding and supports better integration of new knowledge.

The method of loci, also known as the memory palace technique, is one of the oldest documented memory strategies. Greek and Roman orators used it to remember long speeches by associating each point with a specific location in a familiar building. This method leverages humans’ superior spatial memory to store and retrieve sequences of information.

Diagrams, advocated by Diezmann and English (2001), are essential tools for mathematical thinking. They require students to transform abstract concepts into concrete visual representations, which aids both understanding and recall. Teachers who encourage students to create their own diagrams foster deeper engagement with material.

Organized summaries, such as outlines or mind maps, provide a visual framework for recalling interconnected facts. This structure mirrors how the brain organizes related concepts, facilitating faster and more accurate retrieval during exams or when applying knowledge.

Students who use cues—such as personally meaningful words or phrases—are more successful at recalling studied material than those who use generic or externally provided cues. This is because self-generated cues are tied to the learner’s unique mental associations, making retrieval more reliable.

Self-testing is consistently more effective for retention than passive review. Roediger and Karpicke’s 2006 study with history students found that those who practiced retrieval through self-testing retained information longer and performed better on delayed exams than those who simply reread the material.

Writing notes by hand is more effective than typing for learning and recall. Mueller and Oppenheimer’s 2014 study found that students who handwrote notes processed information more deeply, summarized in their own words, and had better conceptual understanding on later tests.

Speed reading, as reviewed in 2017, is effective only up to a point. Attempts to significantly increase reading speed lead to a drop in comprehension and retention, as the brain cannot process complex information faster than certain physiological limits allow.

Spider diagrams or mind maps, as proposed by Tony Buzan and used in educational settings, help students visualize the structure of knowledge around a central idea, with radiating branches for subtopics. This format mirrors the way the brain organizes semantic networks, making it easier to see relationships and recall interconnected information.

Narrative mnemonics convert information into stories. For example, students learning the colors of the rainbow—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet—might use the sentence “Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain,” where each word’s initial letter corresponds to a color.

The Black-Red-Green method helps students deconstruct exam or essay questions. By highlighting blatant instructions in black, references in red, and subtle hints in green, students ensure that no part of a prompt is overlooked, improving their ability to answer comprehensively.

Spacing effect was described by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus in the late 1800s. His experiments showed that spaced intervals between study sessions resulted in better long-term retention than massed practice, a finding that has since been confirmed in educational psychology.

Interleaving, or mixing related topics during practice, improves learning outcomes. Pan’s article in Scientific American explains that switching between types of problems or topics forces students to apply different strategies, leading to better discrimination and generalization.

Retrieval practice, as summarized by Augustin, strengthens memory by forcing the brain to reconstruct information, making it more resistant to forgetting. This effect is reinforced when retrieval attempts are spaced over time, combining the benefits of both techniques.

Time management systems like the ABC or traffic lights method help students allocate limited study time to the most productive topics first, maximizing gains and reducing wasted effort.

Sleep is essential for memory consolidation. Holz’s 2012 study found that learning tasks performed before sleep are more likely to be retained long-term, while tasks requiring analysis and application are better suited for periods of alertness earlier in the day.

The Pomodoro Method—a time management system—was devised in the 1980s to reduce interruptions and maintain focus. Ruensuk’s 2016 study found that using Pomodoro in software development improved productivity by structuring work into predictable intervals.

Journaling before high-stakes exams can lower anxiety and improve performance. Frattaroli, Thomas, and Lyubomirsky found that writing about fears and hopes before the test allowed students to process emotions and redirect mental energy toward the exam itself.

Carey’s research indicates that changing study location can improve memory retrieval by 40 percent, due to the brain forming more robust and diverse memory traces when learning is associated with varied environmental cues.

Background music present during both study and testing can act as a retrieval cue, as memories formed in the presence of specific music are more easily recalled when the same music is played during the exam.

Analogies that are vivid, personally relevant, and logically consistent produce stronger memory traces. Bower and Winzez’s 1970 study confirmed that the Self-reference Effect makes personally meaningful analogies especially effective for encoding and retaining information.

Concept mapping allows students to externalize their understanding of interconnected concepts. Boucquey’s analysis suggests that concept maps support learning in any subject by making relationships explicit and revealing gaps in knowledge.

The method of loci, an ancient memory strategy, is effective because it leverages human spatial memory to encode and retrieve sequences of information. Greek and Roman orators used it to memorize speeches by associating each point with a specific location.

Diagrams play a crucial role in mathematical learning. Diezmann and English found that teachers who encourage student-generated diagrams foster deeper engagement, as students actively reorganize abstract concepts into concrete visual forms.

Acronyms like “HOMES” for the Great Lakes—Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior—are widely used to condense and recall lists. Each letter stands for a different item, and the acronym forms a familiar word, making retrieval easier.

Roediger and Karpicke’s 2006 study established that self-testing produces better long-term retention than passive review, a phenomenon known as the Testing Effect. Retrieval practice reinforces memory networks by requiring the brain to reconstruct information.

Handwritten notes facilitate deeper processing than typed notes. Mueller and Oppenheimer’s research shows that students who write by hand are forced to paraphrase and summarize, which enhances understanding and recall.

Speed reading is constrained by cognitive limits. A 2017 review found that reading speeds above 500 words per minute are associated with significant drops in comprehension and detail retention.

Spider diagrams and mind maps structure knowledge visually around central concepts, with subtopics branching out. This format matches the brain’s associative organization, making recall faster and more reliable.

Narrative mnemonics convert lists into stories, making abstract information meaningful and memorable. For instance, to remember the order of taxonomy—Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species—students use the phrase “Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup.”

The Black-Red-Green method allows for thorough deconstruction of exam prompts by systematically marking instructions, references, and subtle cues in different colors, ensuring comprehensive and accurate responses.

Spacing effect, first described by Ebbinghaus, underlies the success of distributed practice. Information reviewed at spaced intervals is consolidated more deeply, making it resistant to forgetting.

Interleaving, as explained by Pan, enhances the discrimination between similar topics or problem types, improving the adaptability and robustness of learned material.

Retrieval practice, according to Augustin, provides a “workout” for memory, making it more durable. Repeatedly retrieving information, especially over time, leads to better exam performance and long-term mastery.

Time management systems like the traffic lights method help prioritize high-yield topics, ensuring that limited study time is used effectively.

Sleep’s role in consolidating memories is supported by Holz’s research, which found that learning before sleep improves retention, while analytical tasks are best done when alert.

The Pomodoro Technique, validated by Ruensuk’s study, helps maintain focus and reduce interruptions by breaking study into predictable intervals.

Journaling before exams, as shown by Frattaroli and colleagues, reduces anxiety and improves performance by helping students process and reframe their fears.

Carey’s findings on environmental variation suggest that studying in different locations can increase memory retrieval by 40 percent, due to diverse memory cues.

Background music, if used during both study and testing, serves as a retrieval cue, weaving itself into the memory traces and aiding recall.

Analogies that connect material to personal experience are especially effective, as shown by Bower and Winzez’s Self-reference Effect, leading to stronger and more accessible memories.

Concept mapping externalizes a student’s mental model, making relationships between ideas explicit and facilitating integration of new knowledge, as described by Boucquey.

The method of loci, used by ancient orators, exploits spatial memory to encode and recall complex sequences of information by associating them with physical locations.